) 255 
15 
198 
•py 1 




e eee 332 203 6 



^ 



MAfai C<4.^ t-. A^^. 



15 
98 
py 1 



.PORT No. 1 1. 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. 

l\ OFFICE OF FIBER INVESTIGATIONS. 



A REPORT 



CULTURE OF HEMP IN EUROPE, 



INCLUDING 



A SPE:CLAL CONSULAR RliPORT ON THi^: {;ro\vth 

OF HEME IN ITALY. RECEIVF:1) THROUliH 

THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 



CHARLES RICHARDS DODGE, 

Spirial Agent. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1 8 98. 



^t>. 






•t.v 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agricultuke, 

Office of Fiuer iNVESTKrATioNs, 

Washington, 1). (J., June 1, :Z.s'.'>^'. 

Sir: 1 have the honor to submit herewith the manuscript of a rei)ort 
on the culture of hemp in Europe, which has beeu prepared in order 
to acquaint the hemp growers of this country with the foreign prac- 
tices by which high grade imported hemps are produced. 

The growth of a grade of American hemp that will sell for (> to 8 
cents per ])ound, instead of 3 to 3^ cents per pound, as at the present 
time, means that our farmers must follow more closely the careful prac- 
tices of Europe, and especially that they must adopt water retting in 
jdace of the present practice of dew retting, which gives a fiber dark in 
color and uneven in quality. A careful consideration of the practices 
of Italy and France as set forth in this report will materially nid those 
who desire to change their product from the cheaper dark hemps, for 
which there is small demand, to the higher-priced light liemi)s, which 
will compete with the imported commodity. 

I wish especially to call attention to the report, gi^■en herein, of 
United States Consular Agent Gardini, on the growth of Bologna and 
Ferrara hem]), and to state that it has beeu impossible, until recently, 
for the Department to secure any information regarding the growth of 
Italian henq), which is recognized as tbe highest grade of hemp that 
comes to this country. The present widespread interest in hemp cul- 
ture in the Southern States and in States west of the Mississippi 
makes the publication of this material at this time most desirable. 
Ilesi)ectfully, 

Chas. Richards Dodge, 
Special Agent, in charge of Fiber Investigations. 

Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

2 



CONTENTS. 



Pago. 

lutrnductoiy- 5 

Kiurts of liiiuij* grown 6 

A plant oJ' iiuiverstil growth 7 

Tlio hemii iudustry in France 7 

I'reparjition of the laud 8 

Quantity of .seed to sow per acre y 

Gathering the crop 10 

Saving the seed : 11 

Retting the stalks 11 

Scutching 13 

The cultivation of Italian Jicnip 14 

Drying and cleaning 14 

Report of United States Consuhir Agent Carlo (iardini 15 

< )rigin and description of the hemp plant 16 

Chemical composition l(j 

I'hysical construction and height growth 17 

Kind of soil recpiired for hest results 18 

Pre[iaration of the soil 18 

Seed — time and (luautity to sow 19 

Amount of product 19 

Alternate crops 19 

Application of manure 20 

Sowing the seed 21 

How to test the quality of seed 22 

Weeding the crop 22 

Production jier hectare 22 

Need of rich nourishment '. 23 

Effect of hot and wet weather 23 

A parasite 23 

When and how to cut the crop 1 . „ 23 

Drying and sorting the stalks 24 

Caring for seed 25 

Retting the stalks 25 

Stake retting pool 27 

Stone retting pool 27 

Drying the stalks 27 

Scutching and crushing 28 

Finishing touches 28 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Fig. 1. Implemeut used lor leveling the land 19 

2. Hoe used for weediug 22 

3. Scythes for tutting stalks 24 

4. Stake retting pool 26 

5. Stone retting pool 26 

6. Bologna hemp farm 25) 

4 



CULTURE OF HEMP IN EUROPE. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

The cnltivation of hemp in the United States is a very old industry, 
and at one period in our Ijistory was a very large one, the annual pro- 
duction in 1859 reaching ii total of nearly 75,000 tons. But there has 
been a decline since this point of highest production was reached. In 
1870 the annnal production for the entire country had fallen to a point 
as low as 5,000 tons, then rising to about 12,000 tons ; two or three years 
ago it again fell to 5,000 tons, but in view of the recent widespread 
interest in the growth of the plant, production is now increasing. 

Many good reasons have been cited for this decline, which need not 
be enumerated here, further than to state that serious injury was done 
to the industry at the time when Jute began to be used for bagging in 
lieu of tiax and hemp, about 1872. For a long time tlie average annual 
production of the country amounted to about 12,000 tons, but with the 
lowering of prices, and with a failing demand for the kind of hemp 
that was grown, the subsequent decline to 5,000 tons was a most nat- 
ural sequence. The low prices that have prevailed for sisal and manila 
fibers during the past few years have been factors in this decline, 
though the fact may be stated differently. The kind of hemp grown 
was so low in grade that it wns simply crowded to the wall by better 
fibers. 

Within two or three years, since the Office of Fiber Investigations 
has been advocating better methods of culture, and since California 
and the South have become interested in the production of hemp, the 
reaction has set in ; there has been an effort to improve quality, with 
the result that fiber worth 6 and 8 cents per pound has recently been 
sent to the Eastern markets, and now the interest in hemp culture is 
extending in many parts of the country where hitherto it was un- 
known. 

The coarse hemp of Kentucky and Illinois, P^-cent fiber, if it may 
be so referred to, is dew retted, dark in color, not carefully prepared, 
and fit only for the commonest uses in manufacture. For this kind of 
hemp there is now a very small demand. The imported hemp, the 
Italian particularly, is water retted, light in color, some of it almost 
white, is carefully prepared, and the best of it cai)able of use in some 
of the manufactures for which fine flax is employed. This may be 
termed 8 cent hemp, and it is the kind of hemp that American growers 
should produce, and for whicli there is a large demand. 

5 



lu a recent report issued from this office ^ detailed statemeuts are 
made regarding' the cultivation of hemp in the United States, but in 
view of the i)resent widespread interest in the subject, and the neces- 
sity for improving the quality of liber produced by better methods of 
culture and preparation, it is essential that our farmers should know 
something of the methods employed in countries wliere the best hemp 
is grown. To meet this necessity the present report has been jn-epared, 
and the author presents an account of the practices followed in France 
and Italy, because the hemp of these countries is the finest grown, 
although it should be stated that French hemp is lai'gely consumed at 
home and rarely finds its way to the United States. 

There are other imported hemps, such as the Russian and the Hun- 
garian, the former, while lower in grade than either the French or the 
Italian, being imported into this country in considerable quantity and 
occupying a place in grade between the American and the Italian. 

This oflice has examined many specimens of native hemp during tln^ 
past season, submitted for expert opinion or otherwise; some of them 
were the results of first experiments in the direction of better culture, 
but all gave substantial evidence of improvement in quality, while a 
few specimens show('<l that it may be possible in the future to even 
compete with the Italian. 

KINDS OF HEMP GROWN. 

The native home of hemp, known botanically as (Uiminlm safira, is 
that part of Asia consisting of India and Persia, but it is now in gen- 
eral cultivation in teinperate and tropical climes throughout the world. 

Several varieties are recognized in cultivation in this country, that 
cultivated in Kentucky, and having a hollow stem, being the most 
common. China hemp, with slender stems growing very erect, has a 
wide range of culture. Smyrna hemp is adapted to cultivation over a 
still wider range, and a variety is beginning to be cultivated in Cali- 
fornia known as Japanes<' hemp, but which is doubtless identical with 
China hemp. In Europe five varieties are cultivated, which are enumer- 
ated as follows: The common hemp, grown largely in France and gen- 
erally in Europe outside of Italy, growing to a height of 5 to 7 feet; 
Bologna hemp, known in France as Piedmontese hem]), or Great hemp, 
an Italian variety averaging 12 feet in heigiit; Chinese hemp, known 
in Europe since 184(1, and said to have been imi)orted by Signor Itier;^ 
the Cannapa pia-oht, or snuill hemp of Italy, with a reddish stalk, which 
is found in the valley of the Arno and around Tuscany; and the Ara- 
bian hemp, known as Takrousi, a short species cultivated for its resin- 
ous principle, from which hasheesh is derived. 

'Report No. S, Fiber Investigations series, on the culture of Ht>mp and .Tntt- in the 
United States. 

-It is stated that in Ali^icrs tliis hemp has been grown to a licinlii ot 20 tcct, .ind 
that its fiber is remarliablv fine and wonderfully elastic. 



A PLANT OF UNIVERSAL GROWTH. 

Tlie culture is very old in Cbiua and Japan, the lienip of the latter 
country being remarkably fine and strong. It grows throughout India, 
ascending the Himalayas even to 10,000 feet elevation. It flourishes in 
tropical Africa on both the east and west coasts, and is found to some 
extent in the interior. It has been naturalized in portions of Australia, 
and thrives in several South American countries, while in Xorth ^Vmer- 
ica it can be grown from the Gulf to Canada and from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific. 

In Euroi)e the culture is confined chiefly to France, Italy, Germany, 
Hungary, and central and southern Russia, though it grows in Holland 
and Belgium and has been cultivated in parts of (rreat Britain and 
in Sweden. The Italian culture is largely confined at the present time 
to the provinces of Bologna and Ferrara, the French to the northwest- 
ern districts, or Breton, France, while the chief producing districts of 
Russia are Orel, Koorsk, and Smolensk, and the Polish provinces. The 
plains of Hungary are said to be peculiarly adapted to tlie culture, and 
the Hungarian product is stio:ig and good. As to the mere matter of 
growth, there is hardly a locality in Europe where the plant may not be 
cultivated; and the same holds good in the [Tnited States, where in 
many sections it has escaped from cultivation and masquerades as a 
native weed, all of which tends to prove that hemp is a plant of easy 
growth. 

THE HEMP INDUSTRY IN FRANCE. 

Toward the latter part of Se])tember, ISSO, the author visited the 
hemp region of western France, spending a week in different localities 
in the departments of Sarthe and Ille-et-Vilaine, the hemp culture of 
this country being carried on for the most part in the section of France 
known as Brittany. 

It Avas interesting to learn that there was a large demand for hemp 
for spinning purposes, smaller now than formerly, because cotton has 
come into such universal use, but still enough to make quite an industry 
in the production of hemp "linen" alone. This manufacture includes 
shirtings, sheetings, and similar " wliite" goods, canvas, and a number 
of coarse fabrics w^hich find a ready market. Some of the fabrics 
examined, which had not been bleached, were creamy in color, atid so 
firm and durable that one readily understands why they still furnish 
employment to the Breton peasants in their domestic economy. The 
larger demand for hemp fiber in this section, however, is for the manufac- 
ture of cordage, the seat of tin's manufacture, and the seat of the hemp 
industry as well, being Angers, in the department of Maine-et- Loire. 
For lack of time Angers was not visited, and it was hardly important 
that it should have been, as all necessary information could be obtained 
in the localities tliat were visited. Methods of culture and of handling 
the product after harvesting are practically the same as were followed 



8 

many years ago, a gradual decline in quantity produced being tbe 
principal change that may be noted in the industry. 

Probably the finest hemp is produced in Italy. The French hemp 
resembles tliis somewhat in color, both being a creamy yellow and soft 
and fine. The Kussian and American hemps differ from these, being 
for the most part dark in color and not so fine in quality, though it is 
possible to improve the quality by better methods in both countries. 
While there is room for improvement in our own country, it would seem 
unnecessary to produce a hemp for spinning into fabrics to compete with 
ilax raauufuctures when there should be a good home demand for a large 
quantity of coarse hemp, and the flax industry in the United States 
needs encouragement for the i)roduction of a grade of fiber for the very 
fabrics that hemp would enter into. Nevertheless, it is interesting to 
know how the French hemp is produced, and the main purpose of the 
investigations was to obtain information in this direction for the benefit 
of American farmers. 

The prominent departments of France where hemp is cultivated are 
Maine-et-Loire, Snrthe, Morbihan, Iscre, and Puy-de-Dume. The two 
varieties cultivated are the common hemp of the country and the Italian 
hemp, the seed of which is obtained at Piedmont, the chief difference 
being in the length of the stalk, in slower development, and in its 
coarser quality, making it better adapted for cordage. 

Climate hns nuich to do with the successful cultivation of this plant, 
as it makes the best length of stalk, and therefore gives a greater yield 
of fiber, in those situations where the climate is mild and the atmos- 
phere humid. Limestone soils or the alluvial soils, as found in the river 
bottoms, are most congenial to its growth, and as this portion of France 
is well watered by rivers or smaller streams, the cultivation is quite 
general along their banks. Such soils in our own country have given 
the best results. A rotation of (;rops is practiced, hemp alternating 
with grain crops, although MM. Girardin and l)u Breuil state that it 
is also allowed to grow continually upon the same land. Regarding 
this mode of cultivation, they consider that it is not contrary to the 
law of rotation, as by deej) plowing and the annual use of an abund- 
ance of fertilizers the ground is kept sufficiently enriched for the 
demands which are made upon it. If the soil is not sufficiently rich in 
phosphates or the salts of ])otassium, these must be supplied by the 
use of lime, marl, ground bone, animal charcoal, or ashes mixed with 
prejjared animal compost. Even hemp-cake, the leaves of the plant, 
and the " shive" or "boon," may be returned to the land with benefit. 
This high fertilizing is necessary, as "the hemp absorbs the equivalent 
of 1.500 kilos of iertilizers per every liundred kilos of fiber obtained." 

PREPARATION OF THE LAND. 

As in flax culture, a thorough preparation of the seed bed is impor- 
tant, and the finer and more mellow the ground the better will be the 



fiber. The first plowing is done in summer after the harvest of the 
previous crop, for hemp is not considered an exhaustive crop, and is 
frequently grown upon the same land for a succession of years. The 
writer was not able to witness any of the agricultural operations iu 
this industry, as it was late in the season, but the plowing is thus 
described : 

The earth is thrown up so as to form two trenches of 0.30 meter 
(about 1 foot, iu width, letting it fall over a strip of ground likewise 
of 0.30 meter in width, and which is comjdetely covered by the earth 
thus thrown up. The heat at this season is sufficient to soon destroy 
the weeds contained in the earth thus treated. Ten or fifteen days 
later a roller is passed over the ground to level it, and a portion of the 
fertilizer is spread; then about 24 hectoliters' of beans are sown to 
form a green compost. After this a second plowing is given, but in a 
reverse manner from the first, that is to say, the strips of ground 
which had been left at the first plowing are now turned over. The 
roller is again passed over the rough earth and draining ditches are 
made to prevent any moisture from hindering the plowing, which 
should terminate the series of operations at the end of autumn. This 
last tilling is done when the beans are 16 to 18 inches high and before 
the frost. 

The harrow and roller are used to mellow and com]>act the soil, and 
small lines of trenches or furrows are dug for drainage purposes, tliese 
leading into the transverse ditches. These lines are about 10 feet 
apart. No further preparation is needed until tbe time for sowing the 
seed. Just before this time arrives the groun<l is worked over to kill 
the weeds, and is again harrowed. The seed is sown in drills, and 
covered lightly with a hoe, the soil being pressed down and made com- 
pact with this implement. The sowing occurs in the north of France 
about the last of April. The best fertilizers to use in hemp culture are 
ground bone, animal charcoal, lime, marl, and compost mixed with 
ashes. It is considered an advantage, likewise, to return to the soil 
the leaves and woody matter after cleaning, as well as the water in 
which the stalks were retted, when this is possible. 

(,)TTANTITY OF SEED TO SOAV PER ACRE. 

The best seed conies from Piedmont, and, as it deteriorates rapidly, it 
is frequently renewed. The closer the plants can be grown the better 
the fiber, and to this end a large quantity of seed is used. A farmer in 
Sarthe informed the writer that the usual custom was to sow 00 liters 
of seed to 44 ares, 40 ares being equal to an acre. This would give as 
the proper rate to sow about li bushels to the acre, though 4 bushels 
are sometimes put iu where very flue fiber is desired. Tiie sowing is 
done about the last of April. 

'The area was not stated, but it is supposed that this quantity was for a hectare, 
whicla would be equivalent to 2f bushels of beans to tlic acre. 



10 

As the seed must be sown quite thickly to produce fine hemp, it 
deteriorates rapidly aud involves the necessity of iVe(iuently renewing 
the seed; this causes a considerable expense. In order to retard as 
much as possible this impairing of the quality, there are a certain 
number of feet, upon the borders of the field, thinned out, and maize, 
beet root, etc., sowed, so that the i)lants, being isolated, may acquire a 
large development and the seeds produce plants which will preserve the 
proper characteristics of their species. The good seed is of a dark-gray 
color, glossy and heavy. It preserves its germinating jiower but one 
year. 

When the ground hardens too rai)idly, after sowing and before the 
plants have started, straw is sometimes strewn over the field, or the 
rake used to keep the surface open. 

As in fiax cnltui-e, the crop must be kept free from weeds; all injured 
plants must be remo\ ed, and it is the custom even to thin out the plants 
when growing too thickly, as is frecpiently the case from irregular sow- 
ing. It was learned that 250 plants to a square meter^ of ground is 
considered the right average when the fiber is grown for cordage; but 
when produce'1 for fabrics at least 400 plants are allowed to grow in 
this area. Full details of the manner of harvesting the crop at the 
farms visited were not obtained, but some facts as to the methods of 
harvesting are condensed from a French work- furnished the writer by 
M. Grosjean, of the ministry of agriculture. 

<iA'l'HEKIN(l THK OTIOP. 

In order to obtain the best possible results in the quality of fiber, 
the i)lants should be gathered when the male stalks have shed their 
riowers and tlie stems begin to be yellow, liegardiiig the sex of the 
plant, the authors state in a footnote that "in many localities they give 
the name oi' male hemp to those plants which bear the fruit, and that of 
female hemp to those which have no fruit, a h-ss development, and in 
which the \egetation is sooner arrested. This nomenclature is incor- 
rect, as precisely the contrary (terms) should be emi)loyed." 

The season of shedding the fiowers comes in the west of France 
about the middle of July. There are two modes of gathering, depend- 
ent upon the use to which the tii)er will be put. If for cordage, the 
stalks are cut with a sharp instrument resembling a short scythe, and 
laid upon the ground in sheaves, where they ai'e left to dry from one to 
three days. The leaves are then stripi)ed aud the stalks removed to 
the sheds to be assorted, ])laced in piles horizontally, the lower ends of 
the stalks being pressed firmly against a wall, so that the inequalities 
of their length may i>lainly ai>pear. Ui)on each pile there is placed 
close to the wall a weight, to prevent deranging the stems while 
drawing them out in assorting. This is done by haudfuls: first the 

'A meter is iibout 3ij inches over a yard. 

-A Tre;iti«e on Ajuriinltiire, by Mcssienrs Oirardiii inid Dn iirenil. 



11 

longest stems, then the iiicdium, and then the short ones. They are 
bound into sheaves, several of which are ])ut together, forming bundles, 
each containing stalks of equal length. The tops of the sheaves are 
then cut off, and only the portion ])reserved that will make good fiber. 
When tlie hemp is grown for use in spinning, that is, for fabrics, the 
stalks are not cut, but are pulled like fiax. The operator first removes 
the leaves by passing his hand from toj) to bottom of the stalk, it being 
important to return the leaves to the soil where they were grown. Six 
to fifteen stalks are pulled at one operation, according to the ease with 
which they can be drawn out of the ground, and the earth shaken off. 
These handfuls are made into bundles about G inches in diameter; 
after bundling, the roots and tops are cut off by means of an ax and 
chopping block. The clipped stalks are then made up iuto larger 
bundles a foot or more in diameter, and are sent to be retted at once, 
as it is claimed that tln^ hemi> is not so white if it is dried before retting. 

SAVING THE SEED. 

In some localities the gathering of the hemp is so managed as to 
secnre the greatest quantity of seed possible of good quality. To this 
purpose the male stalks are first collected, which ripen six weeks earlier 
than the female stalks, the latter being given plenty of time to mature 
and not being gathered until their leaves and stems begin to turn yel- 
low and the seeds to grow dark. They are tied in bunches, ami of 
thes(^ there are made large bundles, whicli are ])laced upright, that the 
seed may com])lete its opening. The seeds are extracted by beating 
the stalks. This manner of operating produces less fiber, and these 
female plants yield fiber of inferior (juality from those collected at the 
time of maturing of the male plants; but the harvest of seed compen- 
sates for the difference. If you take into account the expense occa- 
sioned V)y the double harvesting and double retting, we find that there 
is greater advantage in having but one harvest, without leference to 
the seed. Dried in the air, the male hemp contains an average of 26 
per cent of stripped hemp, and the female i)lants from 10 to li2 per 
cent. The stripped hemp dried in the air does not yield more than (50 
to 75 per (;ent of textile fiber, the renminder being foreign matter solu- 
ble in leached alkali, so that 100 parts of green hemp do not produce 
more than .") to 8 parts of textile fiber, 

RETTING THE STALKS. 

There are two systems of retting practice<l in western France, the 
retting in the open field, where tlie stalks are allowed to lie about a. 
month, and similar to the i)lan followed in Kentucky, in our own country, 
and the water retting, whi(;h produces the best fiber. The water ret- 
ting (rouissage) is accomplished both in i)ools and in running streams. 
The river retting seems to accomplish tlie best results, although taking 
a little longer time than the pool retting, the duration of immersion 



\ 



12 



varying from live to eigbt days. If the weatber is cold it retards tlie 
operation two or three days longer than if warm. This accounts, too, 
for the shorter time occupied when the immersion takes place in pools. 
This work is usually done in the latter part of August. The bundles 
of hemi) are floated in the water, secured if in a running stream, and 
are covered with boards kept in place by stones or any weight that will 
keep them under. From all that could be learned there is little pool ret- 
ting- in the Sarthe district, although public opinion is generally against 
river retting, on the score of its rendering the waters of the streams 
foul and detrimental to health, as well as destroying all animal life 
with which they should abound. There are said to be very stringent 
police regulations against the use of streams for this j^urpose, and as 
long ago as 1886, in a brochure published by M. Bary, a hemp spinner 
of Le INIans, attention was called to the desirability of introducing an 
improved method of retting, which would accomplish all the beneficial 
results of retting in running water artificially, and therefore render 
unnecessary the polluting of streams. From M. Janvier (of the hemp- 
spinning establishment of Janvier, Pere et Fils et Cie, at Le Mans, 
successors to M. Bary) it was learned that while many attemi^ts have 
been nuide to bring about a better system, none have been successful, 
and, police legulations to the contrary notwithstanding, the best hemj) 
fiber produced in the Sarthe district is still retted in the running- 
streams.' Where pool retting is followed the pools are specially con- 
structed, dug out of the earth to the depth of a yard or more, walled 
up or the sides made solid, and lined and fioored with cement usually, in 
order that the water shall remain clean and the hemp retain its color. 
The stalks are watched very closely after the third or fourth days, the 
farmer breaking and examining a few at intervals to guard against 
over retting, which weakens the fiber. 

When sufficiently retted, whether the work is done in streams or 
pools, the hemp bundles are removed from the water, but first agitated 
to remove all waste matter that may be adhering to the stalks. They 
are then drained, and the bundles, opened at the bottom, are set up in 
conical sheaves to dry, this operation being accomplished in two or 
three days. Considerable of the hemp grown in the Sarthe district 
(the writer can not speak tor otlier sections) is further dried in brick- 
kilns. One of these examined on a large hemp farm visited near Le 
Mans, and at that time in operation, may be described as a circular 
brick structure some 10 or V2 feet in height, resembling a smokehouse 
in our country. It was built on a side hill, the door opening into the 
chamber where the liemp was drying being on one level, the higher, while 
the floor t© the fire pit, at the opi)osite side of the building, was on the 
lower level. As no evidence of a fire was observed, it is inferred that 
the fire is drawn when the right temperature has been reached, and 

^Such an improved process has recently been invented In Bels'inm, known as the 
Loppens-l^pswarte system, and fnlly described in Eeport No, 10, Fiber Tnvestioa- 
tions Series. Tt is applicable alike to hemp and to Hax rettinn. 



\ 



13 

the lieiiii) iutiodnced upon the grated tioor to dry slowly by moderate 
heat. The ^vriter witnessed the process of breaking hemp iu the Sarthe 
district aud brought away samples of both stalks and cleaned fiber as 
sent to market, as well as samples of scutched, softened, and dressed 
liber prepared both for cordage manufacture and for weaving into 
"linen." The stalks are of creamy whiteness, as brittle as j)ii)estem8, 
and the tilasse, particularly next the wood, so bright in color that no 
tinge of yellow is observable. A farm operator, upon being (questioned, 
stated that he was able to break out 30 to 33 kilograms of fiber i^er 
day (say 60 to 75 pounds). A brake similar iu principle to the old- 
fashioned Kentucky hemp brake is used, though lighter and smaller in 
the first jdace, produced with seven instead of five breaking slats 
(arranged three opposite to four), both wood and metal being used in its 
construction. Double this quantity of hemp is cleaned in a dny by the 
negro operators in Kentucky, but it should be explained that the French 
operator is nicer in his manipulation of the fiber, running through a 
smaller ({uantity at one time, skillfully twisting the product into a very 
loose rope or "streak" of fiber, these as produced being laid most care- 
fully side by side so that when the larger bundle of fiber is made up each 
has its place and can be detached from its fellows by the scutcher with 
hardly the disarrangement of a filament. 

SCUTCHING. 

At a scutch mill, where, by the way, only hand scutching was prac- 
ticed, the writer was shown some bales of softened fiber, and he after- 
wards visited the establishmentof a hemp softener (Batteurde Chan vre), 
near Le Mans, to observe the process. The mill was run by water power, 
the fiber being manipulated on a circular platform a couple of feet in 
height and perhaps 8 iu diameter, made of solid oak blocks placed on 
end aud forming the surface. To a heavy spindle in the center was 
attached a short conical cylinder of iron, weighing some 2,J:00 ijounds. 
The "streaks," or ropes, of fiber as received from the farmer are made 
up into bundles weighing perhaps 6i jwunds each, and these to the 
amount of 130 pounds are arranged over the surface of the circular bed, 
or platform. The heavy iron cone is then made to revolve or travel 
around in a circle at a rate of speed equal to thirty-five times a minute, 
the softening process re(iairing from half an hour to one hour and a 
half, dependent upon the condition of the hemp under treatment. Only 
the finest fiber is softened, the product going to the spinning mills for 
the manufacture of coarse sheeting, shirting, canvas, and similar 
fabrics, the peasantry of Brittany, for the most part, employing hemp 
instead of fiax in the domestic economy. 

Although these details relate to the manufacturing side of the indus- 
try, rather than the agricultural, they are interesting as showing by 
what careful means a fiber is produced in this country (France) that 
will take the place of linen. While on this subject it may be added 



14 

that the softeued liemp is not used in its whole length, but is broken 
(pulled apart) into three pieces on a mechanical device for the purpose 
found in all hemp mills (and even in our own country). The bottom 
third is the best, and is kept separate for use in the finest numbers of 
yarn. 

THE CULTIVATION OF ITALIAN HEMP. 

The best hemp which comes to this market is the Italian. Sc\ eral 
varieties are cultivated in Italy, as already stated, though the princi- 
pal variety is the Piedmontese or Bologna, the same that is grow n in 
France. 

Savorgnan states that the soil chosen foi- this culture in Italy is a 
soft, deep, sedimentary fornmtion, and tliis is twice plowe<l in Novem- 
ber, fifteen days intervening between the t\\ o plowings. The quantity 
of seed sown varies according to the ^oil, climate, and variety of hemp, 
but in Lombardy the average (luantity is 200 liters per hectare, or about 
2i bushels per acre. The crojt is well fertilized, but not excessively, 
and regard is had to economy of cost. In isddition to other fertilizers, 
in Bologna, Professor Marconi names the following: First, manure and 
olive husks (after the last pressing); second, manure and excrement 
from hens (little used but very efhcacious); third, manure aiul chrys- 
alides of worms, that is, silkworms; fourth, maiuire and olive husks 
with one or more of the others. The guide for harvesting the crop is 
the state of maturity of the tops, which become yellow, and the white 
appearance at the foot of the stalks. First, the male plants are har- 
vested, and twenty or twenty-four days later the female plants. These 
two operations are never retaided nor preci})itated. After cutting, the 
stalks are removed to a shady place and the tops inclined over a sort 
of trestle to dry. Ten or twelve handfuls of stalks form a bundle of 
equal-length stems for the operation of retting. 

DRYING AND (JLEANINtl. 

The stalks are retted in water and either dried in the open air, in 
furnaces, or in trenches, the last practice being rarely used. Drying in 
the open air has advantages over any other method : First, it is less 
exj^ensive; second, a superior bleaching of the fiber is secured. In the 
ovens the operation is hastened, and in many ways this is a very desir- 
able systenj. In a perfectly dry atmosphere three to six days suffice for 
drying thoroughly. The stalks are again put into bundles and placed 
in dry locations, safe from .rodents. The drying by artilicial heat is 
done in common bread ovens, but the temperature should be very mod- 
erate; usually the hemp is introduced one hour or one hour and a half 
after the removal of the bread from the oven. The liemp stalks are 
decorticated in various ways by hand processes of beating or by 
machinery. The French brake, Avhich is somewhat similar to tbe Ken 
tucky brake, is little used, though ;i machine quite as primitive is 



15 

largely employed. In tliis device the stalks are ttrst crushed, theu 
cleaned by beatiug. The heinp is not ready for market when it comes 
from this machine, but is further cleaned, and the bits of wood, etc., 
which adhere to the fibers are carefully removed. 

It may be stated that in favorable soils Italian hemp averages a yield 
of 1,700 to -5,200 pounds of dry stalks per acre, which produce from 450 
to 530 pounds of tiber. "In general, 100 kilos of raw hemp furnish 25 
kilos of raw filasse, and 100 kilos of ordinary tilasse (fiber) give 05 kilos 
combed tilasse and .'>2 kilos of towj 100 kilos of seed furnish 27 kilos of 
oil.'' A kilo is 2.2 pounds. 

In the foregoing statemeuts it has only been attempted to outline the 
general practice of Italy, leaving the details to be presented in a special 
rei)ort on the hemp culture of Bologna and Ferrara, i)repared by 
United States Consular Agent Carlos Gardini, of Bologna, Italy, and 
transmitted through the Department of State. As reference has already 
been made to the su^jeriority of this hemp, an account of the methods 
by which it is produced, at a time when American growers are endeav- 
oring to improve the native product by more careful culture and pre^jar- 
ation, is a valuable contribution to the literature of the subject, and 
the report is therefore commended to all who are interested in the 
growth in America of this important textile. 

REPORT OF UNITED STATES CONSULAR AGENT CARLO GARDINI. 

[Sulimitted to State Departuioiit from Bologua under dnW July 24, 1897.] 

One of the most important agricultural industries of the Italian 

provinces of Bologna and Ferrara is the cultivation of h(imp. Bologna 

hemp is generally manufactured into yarns for canvas and twines; the 

Ferrara hemp is principally Avorked up by rope spinners. The former 

has a softer and brighter fiber than the latter but not so strong; they 

are both, however, held in liigh esteem in textile centers abroad, chieHy 

iu Germany, Austria, France, England, Spain, and in the United 

States. ^ 
The cultivation of hemp has developed greatly in these provinces 

owing to the favorable conditions of the climate and soil. This plant 
sprouts at 8° C. (4Go F.) and thrives well at 23° C. (73° F.). From its 
sowing to cutting for fiber the total amount of heat it reipiires is 2,100° 
C. (3,128° F.), and from sowing to cutting for seed 2,700° C. (4,892° 
F.). Hemp may be cultivate*! ])etween the equator and G0° latitude, 
and when it is rationally treated no other plant gives more i)rofitj at 
the same time it leaves the soil in such a good condition tha^ the fol- 
lowing crop (wheat) is almost marvelous. 

'The exportation viiluc of J5ologua and Feirtirii hemp certitied by this consular 
agency from July 1, 1895, to June 30, 1896, iiuiounted to $216,690.94, and from .Inly 1, 
1896, to. June 30, 1897, to $219,475.r)9. But many other invoices of considerable 
amount of hemp of the same provinces were certified at Leghorn, Venice, Liverpool, 
and Ilajjibnrg by the respective Luited .States consulates. 



16 

ORIGIN AND DESCRIPTION OF THE HEMP PLANT. 

The hemp plant, Canimhis sativa, is of Persian origin and grows wild 
in northern India and Siberia. The plants are male and female, the 
latter producing the seed. They have a long, white, fibril, tapered 
root; the stems are straight and ramified, if grown isolated, and 
covered with a hairy or velveted coat; height from 3 to 15 feet. Their 
branches grow opposite each other and bear five or seveu small lanceo- 
lated leaves toothed at the margin. The female fiower is sexual, almost 
invisible, a single cup-shaped shell longitudinally oi)eu on one side, 
with one ovary surmounted by two small woolly coated plus or points. 
The seed is in a horny bivalvular capsule or pod containing one seed. 
The fiowers are grouped in bunches, and the seed is of a dark green 
color and black striped when ripe and pale green when just formed. 

The male plant bears cup shaped flowers also, the branches of which 
are divided into five smaller leaves and five shorter stems with oblong 
tetragon anthers, disposed in small bunches scattered here and there on 
the stetns of the top leaves, ordinarily in a green cluster, and when 
ripe they turn yellow. The male stems tend less to branch. 

The diversity of quality in hemp for yarns and canvas and that for 
rope does not arise from the difi'erence in the plants, but from the results 
of vegetation, culture, steeping, and general manipulation. The same 
hemp bed will produce from the center file a good, long, resisting fiber, 
while from the sides of the same bed a short, hard fiber may be had, 
only fit for the rojie spinner. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 

The chemical composition of whole length of steiu, according to 
Kane, is as follows : 

I'er cent. 

Curbou 3D. 93 

HycliOf>eu 5. 04 

Oxygen i8. 71 

Nitrogeu 1. 74 

Carbonif acid 1. 45 

Suli)liuric acid 08 

Pliojsphoric acid .15 

Chlorine 07 

Oxide of calcimn 1. 90 

Maguesia .22 

Potash : 34 

Mineral alkali 03 

Silex 30 

Iron and aluiuina .04 

Total 100. 00 

In 100 parts of stems there is 1,74 per cent of nitrogeu, while in 100 
parts of seed 2.00 percent can be extracted; therefore both contain 
abundant calcareous substance, especially the seed. 



17 

The tbllowiuj;' is the analysis of the ashes of the whole length of stein 
according to liulling': 

Per cent. 

Potash and iniuenil alkali 8. 20 

Oxide of calcium 42. 05 

Maguesia 4. 88 

Phosphoric acid 3. 22 

Sulphuric acid 1. 10 

Silex 6. 75 

Carbonic acid 3. 90 

Chlorhydric acid 1. 60 

Loss 28. 30 

Total 100. 00 

Heiup seed, according to analysis of Bucholtz, contains: 

I'ci- tent. 

^ Fatty oils 19. 1 

Kesin 1. (5 

Saccharine l.fi 

Gum extract 9. 

Albumeu 24. 7 

Woody fiber 43 3 

Loss 7 

4 otal 100. 

JBoussingault andMoride say the seed contains lli.2 percent of mois- 
ture, 36.6 per cent of oil, and only 21.1 [ler cent of woody matter. 
Others say it contains 25 per cent of oil and 22 per cent of alkaline 
matter. 

Jueymard's experiments with tlie seed gave: 

IVr cciil. 

Sulphuric acid 34. 96 

Oxide of calcium 26. 63 

Potash 21.67 

Silex 14.04 

Magnesia 1 . 00 

Peroxide of iron .77 

Mineral alkali .66 

Sulphate of lime .18 

Chloride of sodium . 09 

Total 100. 00 

Leuctweis in the ashes found: 

I'er cen(. 

Potash 21.67 

Mineral alkali 66 

Oxide of calcium 26. 63 

Phosphoric acid 34. 96 

PHYSICAL CONSTKUCTLON AND IIEIG^HT GROWTH. 

The fiber is woody and lies immediately under the epidermis, which 
together torm the bark of the stem, 
3823— No. 11 2 



18 

Hemp growing in a wild state will not yield the fiber and kind of 
dressed line the Bologna and Ferrara plants do. The art of cultnie 
compels it to grow in thin, slender, erect stems, and crowded together, 
in order to obliterate the i)ossibility of their branching. Isolated or 
wild plants on i)oor, badly tilled soil, do not grow to any height. In 
a deep, rich, and well-prepared loam, though they might reach the 
height of -0 feet, the stems would be rough, thick, and branchy, pro- 
ducing coarse, barky Hlaments only fit for the manufacture of rope. 
Good tilling and manuring is not sufficient, though. The stems, being 
crowded togitiier, reciprocally shade each other, and they grow up thin 
and slender, yielding a soft, silky, bright, strong fiber. 

The seed sparingly sown produces thick stems, especially at the root 
end of the plant, and will yield 15 per cent less fiber than thickly sown 
seed ; consequently it produces broad, ribbon root ends, which are graded 
"'rejected." This plant vegetates with success in temperate climates, 
and if it succeeds in moderately cold regions it is on account of there 
beiug about one hundred and fifty days of suflicient heat for its hurried 
vegetation. 

KIND OF SOIL REQUIRED FOR BEST RESULTS. 

A rich, siliceous-calcareons-argillousloam is generally regarded as the 
best soil for its cultivation. The seed bed should possess this natural 
friable composition to the depth of about 15 to 21 inches, which is as 
far down as the work of digging goes after the plow has cut the fur- 
rows. Generally it is sown after a crop of wheat; sometimes it is put 
on to artificial grass plots, and sometimes, but seldom, it is sown year 
after year on the same land. 

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 

There must be a thorough jireparation of the soil to facilitate the 
penetration of the long, tapered roots in order to preser\e a proper pro- 
portion of moisture during the hot weather, and also to clean the soil of 
weeds. After grain reaping, toward the end of June or beginning of 
July, the plot chosen for the seed bed is plowed in such a manner as to 
pile up the soil furrow to furrow, so that the soil of each furrow will 
cover a portion of land, to be plowed in turn after an interval of a fort- 
night; meantime, the bottom of each furrow is dugout and the soil 
placed above that already turned by the plow. In about a fortnight 
plow through the ridges over which the soil of the former two furrows 
M-as turned, and dig below the plow blade as before, turning the soil 
over right and left out of the newly made furrow, or trench. 

In August, after a good manuring, plowing is resorted to once more 
to cover in. On small farms deep digging is customary. In Novem- 
ber or December the bed or plat is leveled by means of a heavy ladder- 



19 

sba[)ed impleiuent with three niugs (tig. 1), drawn by oxen over the 
bed from end to end, after which the phit is more perfectly leveled by 




Flo. 1 Implement used lor leveling tlie hind. 

the use of hoe aud spade, bearing in luind to [)reservc a uuiforin 
convexity of bed. 

SEED — TIME AND QUANTITY To SOW. 

Sowing commences in February or the first fortnight of March, and 
from (io to 75 liters of seed is sown per hectare (nearly 2i acres). This 
is covered iu by the hoe, and the surface of bed nicely leveled by 
raking over. 

A siliceous-argillous soil is well adapted for this cultivation when 
situated iu a low, cool country. In elevated localities, if showers are 
lacking in May, the vegetation is sorely checked, consideriug the plants 
flower too soon. The (cultivation, therefore, is not limited to any con- 
ditions of temperature, aud extends throughout uumy parts of Europe. 
It depends mostly upon the conditions of the soil ; when this is not deep, 
friable, cool, aud at the same time souud, the plant will not thrive. 

AMOVTNT OF PRODUCT. 

The yield depeuds greatly on the regular and constant proi)ortion of 
moisture contained iu the soil. When the plant has grown to the 
height of 1 foot, even an extreme drenching could not harm it, unless 
it lasted some days. Watering is not considered essential, although it 
is advantageous, no doubt, in long, dry, obstinate seasons. From 20 to 
I'd hundredweight could be produced during a dry season by watering, 
where only from 10 to 12 hundredweight could be had, owing to the 
iuterriii»tion of the plant's growth by drought. 

ALTERNATE CROPS. 

Hemp alternates most commonly with wheat, the former giving the 
best results iu rotation, inasmuch as it leaves the land free of weeds, 
very rich, and iu such a condition that wheat may be sown to the best 
advantage without much dressing. On the Bologna plains the farms 
are disposed on a very economical system — iu long, rectangular plats, 
with a row of elms along each side. The hemp is sown at a distance 
of about 12 feet ou each side from the row of trees. 

The following rotation of crops is recommended : Luceru for fodder, 
hemp, aud wheat. 



20 



The following- plan is giveu for rotation of crops. Each year on this 
farm of 18 fields (> will be growing lucern, <> wheat, and 6 hemp. 

[W, wlieat; H, benip; L, lucern.] 













Years. 










Fields. 














7 


8 






1 


2 


3 


i 

L 


5 
L 


6 


9 


10 


1 


H 




L 


L 


L 


AV 


H 


AV 


2 


H 


W 


H 


w 


H 


AV 


H 


AV 


\l 


L 


:) 


H 


W 


H 


w 


H 


AV 


H 


AV 


H 


AV 


4 


H 


W 


H 


L 


L 


L 


L 


L 


L 


W 


5 


11 




H 


W 


H 


L 


^ 


L 


L 


L 


6 


H 




H 


W 


H 


AV 


H 


L 


L 


L 


7 


L 




n 


AV 


H 


AV 


H 


AV 


H 


W 


8 


I. 




w 


H 


AV 


H 


W 


H 


AV 


H 


9 


L 




L 


AV 


H 


AV 


H 


AV 


H 


AV 


10 


L 




L 


L 


AV 


H 


\V 


H 


AV 


H 


11 


L 




I. 


L 


L 


AV 


H 


AV 


H 


W 


12 


L 




L 


L 


L 


L 


W 


H 


W 


H 


13 


W 




W 


H 


AV 


R 


AV 


H 


AV 


H 


14 


■w 




L 


T. 


L 


L 


L 


L 


AV 


H 


15 


W 




W 


It 


L 


L 


L 


T, 


L 


L 


16 


AV 




W 


H 


AV 


H 


L 


L 


L 


L 


17 


W 


H 


w 


H 


AV 


H 


W 


H 


L 


L 


18 


W 


H 


w 


H 


AV 


H 


AV 


H 


AV 


11 



APPLICATION OF MANURE. 

Although hemp, in rotation with wheat, leaves a powerful fertilizing 
matter in the helds, maize should never foUoAv a wheat crop to be fol- 
lowed in turn by hemp, unless the land is richly manured. As before 
stated, the hemp plant is most exhaustive to the soil in cultiA^ation, but 
it fjives back by its residues a large proportion of iertilizing material, 
especially when it is realized that a considerable quantity is depos- 
ited in the steeping pits, which must be cleaned out and the mud 
spread over the fields, supplying an excellent manure. The quantity 
of manure required per hectare is about 30 tons; less is required when 
the hemp fields have once been well prepared. In the Bologna district 
manuring is done in a very systematic and lational manner. The farm 
manure is well mixed under the lowest stratum of soil; then the otluu- 
manures are worked into the medium stratum, and, last of all, before 
sowing, in order to increase its richness, hen manure or oil cake refuse 
is spread over the surface. Experience has shown that manuring by 
penning sheep on the land at night gives most excellent results. 

Several kinds of manure may be used, such as soot, Avhich is ad van 
tageous in destroying the parasitical weed Fhelipea raniosa, a fatal 
pest to the hemp. Oil-cake refuse, or any oily residual matter, is 
excellent for producing good line. Hoofs or feathers are considered 
the best — hoofs for soil where silex abounds, feathers for a hard, sub- 
stantial loam. ISTight soil is as efficacious as the droppings of fowls. 
Guano is advantageous when scattered over the surface of the field 



21 

and worked in with the hoe just before sowing-. Hair (animal), cotton 
and woolen rags, besides the mad taken from the steeping pools and 
left in a heap for some months, are all excellent surface manures. Beans, 
too, are sowed and plowed into the soil at maturity. 

Manures should be applied as follows: 

(1) To the lower stratum of soil. (2) Over the furrows, which are 
then covered. (3) Scatter the last manuring over the hemp field and 
work in with the hoe shortly before sowing. 

Tdhle showinff ([iiantitij of manure to allot per hectare J 





Lowpr stratniii . 


Medium stratum. 


Superficially. 


I 

II 
III 

IV 
V 
VI 


Farm manures . . 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 


tons 

....do.. 
....do.. 
....do-. 
....do.. 
....do.. 
....do.. 


.20 
.20 
-20 
10 
10 
-10 
.10 


Bean stalk.s 

do 

Feathers 

Bean stalks 

Hoofs 

Night soil 

Oil-cake refuse 

do 


-tons. 
..do.. 
. .cwt. 
.tons. 

.cwt. 

tons. 
..do., 
.-cwt. 


- 6 

- G 
. 6 
. 6 
-12 
. 3 
. 1 
.32 


Hen manure 

Guano 

Hen manure 

Oil-cako refuse 

Hen manure 


.cwt. 
.do.. 
..do., 
■.do.- 
.do.. 


. 5 

. 4 
. 5 

.20 
. 5 


VII 
VIII 


Hen manure 

do 

Oil-cake refuse 


.cwt. 
.do.- 
.do-. 


. 2 


IX 


Farm maDiires ... 
do 


...tons. 
....do.. 


.20 
.10 




8 


X 


Animal dried blood. 


.tons. 


2 





' A Iieclare is ahout 2f, acres. 

Five tons of bean stalks (calculated as dry) contain about 3 hundred 
weight of nitrogen, equal to IG tons of fiirm manures. 

The fields manured as to I, II, III will do well for wheat crops in 
succession, being rather strong; Vlil is weaker. 

Fertilizing substances, containing nitrogen or phosphates alone, check 
the vegetation of hemp; therefore the best manure is considered that 
produced on the farm. 

The fields, oidinarily 90 yards long by 40 broad, should be nicely 
raked and dressed, so that they will be slightly convex. 

Cart, scatter, and bury the fertilizer for the first manuring in August, 
and sow the beans at once if considered necessary. In November plow 
and dig up under the furrows, covering- in the bean stalks, if sown. 
Weather permitting, hoe, weed, and cover over the superficial manure 
in February, remembering to dress the soil when almost dry, thoroughly 
working in all the bean stalks. 



SOWING THE SEED. 

Having prepared the soil during winter, it is an easy matter to dress 
for sowing. The seed should be a gray-green, black-striped, brilliant 
color, and so heavy as not to float on water. Black or whitish colored 
seed must be discarded, not having been ripe when gathered. Sixty- 
five to seventy-five liters per hectare (or approximately li to 2 bushels 
per acre) are sufiicient when there is quality. 

Mark off the fields into beds about 8 feet wide. The seed is sown 
broadcast early in March, and this operation should be intrusted to 



22 

tliose who have a thorough knowledge of the crop and an interest in 
tlie result of the liarvest. To have portions of laud sparsely covered 
and others too thickly covered will cause much irregularity and reduce 
the commercial value of the liber produced. 

HOW TO TEST THE (,)TTAEITY OF SEED. 

To ascertain if the seed is in good condition and containing all its 
germinating properties, bieak open a few of them. If they have a 
musty, oily taste, the seed is old. Seed three years old will not sprout. 
When the farmers have any doubts about the quality, they count 100 
seeds and sow tliem in a flowerpot, keeping the soil damp and i>lacing- 
the pot in the warmest nook in the stable. In eight or ten days the 
seed will sprout; 90 per cent of sprouts indicates a firstclass quality of 
seed.; 70 to SO per cejit, fairly good. I>y this means it is possible to 
estimate very closely how much to sow to obtain an even growth over 
the field. Some sow by machinery with good results, the practice also 
saving seed.' 

WEEDING THE CUOV. 

Favorable weather and a temperature of 10° C, with sufficient moist- 
ure, will enable the young- 
plants to appear in five to 
eight days, after which it 
is advisable to weed. In 
a wet spring weeding is 
resorted to three or four 
times. When the plants 
are about 2 inches high, 

Fto. 2.— Hop used for wccilina;. , . , , •, • 

bearing two leaves, it is 
necessary to weed with the so-called weeding hoe (flg. 2). Repeat this 
operation when from 5 to 8 inches high. 

PRODTTCTTON PER HECTARE. 

If too thickly sown, when about 4 feet high the plant stops growing 
and begins to lose its dark-green color and Howers. When rationally 
treated this plant will stop growing only for want of moisture in 
very dry seasons, yielding from 20 to 20 hundredweight of fiber per 
hectare, tow and rejected included. The green stalks, when ready for 
cutting, weigh from 19 to 30 tons. The loss in drying and casting of 
leaves is from 30 to 35 per cent. Approximately, 19 tons will be the 

'Improved niacliines of American make are not known to the majoi'ity of farmers. 
The writer has several times suggested that it would be to the advantage of tiic 
manufacturers of Ameriean agrieulturnl implements to be represented at Milan, 
Bologna, and Naples, in order that the farmers of these large agricultural centers 
might become ac(|uaiiited with these superioi' implements. 




23 



entire weij:,ht of the vegetable mass when ready for cutting, as will be 
seen by tlie following: 



Loss iu drying 

Leaves, roots, tops, etc., left on the field 

Fertilizing matter deposited in the steeping pit from the sorted stalks. 

Sticks, about 

Seed , 



Fiber, including tow and rejections 
Total 



Tons. 



Cwt. 



NEED OF R[CH NOURISHMENT. 

Comfort and abundant nourishment in animal life hasten puberty — 
the contrary to what takes place when in a wild state, and when growth 
is stunted. Vegetable life, on the contrary, presents in this respect a 
decided contrast. Substantial and abundant nutriment tends to retard 
development of the generative properties, and the plant blooms later, 
and later still produces seed; therefore when the hemp plant in its 
infancy finds itself in unfavorable and stinted conditions, it flowers and 
seeds very soon. This will occur also when too thickly sown, which 
defect deprives it of sufficient nourishment and space to spread its roots. 

EFFECT OF HOT AND WET WEATHER. 

When the stalks show signs of rusting after alternate days of wet 
and hot weather, it is advisable to hurry the cutting. Drops of water 
on the plants evaporate by the sun's action, leaving black or red spots, 
which damage the fiber. After it is V2 to 14 inches high little attention 
is needed until it reaches maturity. At this height tlie plants cover 
the soil, protect it from the sun, and thus preserve it cool, besides suifo- 
cating the ever obstinate reproduction of weeds. 

A PARASITE. 

Phelipea rmnosa (a vegetable parasite of the honeysuckle species) is 
a fatal enemy to hemp. It germinates on its roots, depriving them of 
nourishment and causing the plants to flower very soon. This para- 
site grows pods full of very small seed, which preserve their germinat- 
ing i^roperties for years. To extirpate this destructive parasite it is 
indispensable to change the rotation of crops for a few years, or to cut 
the hemp as far down :is possible before the parasite flowers. Very 
approiniately, the Germans call this terrible weed Hanfmurder (the 
hemp murderer). 

WHEN AND HOW TO CUT THE CROP. 

Cutting begins toward the end of July or early in August, when the 
male i^lants throw oft' a dusty substance, the best time being during 
the course of change from dark green to a. light-brown color and before 



24 




r.ri. :!.— Soytlifs li)v cntliiis st,'ill<s. 



the stalks become yellow. This, however, must be determined accord- 
ing to circumstances and practical experience. The farmer cuts tbe 
stalks with a kind of scythe (flg. 3), by taking an armful under his left 

arm and between it and 
his body, cutting with the 
right just above the sur- 
face of the bed, and then 
laying them across each 
other diagonally until a 
sheaf is complete. A ])or- 
tion of the l)est of the 
female i)lants is lelt grow- 
ing to produce seed. 
When the stalks have 
lain a day or two in the 
sun they are turned over, 
and when dry the sheaves 
are taken up and beaten 
on the earth to strip them 
of their leaves. The stalks are then set up on their root ends, so as to 
make conical shaped stacks about 9 feet in diameter at the base, wliich 
are left standing a few days to further dry and season. 

DRYING AND .SORTING THE STALKS. 

The steeping or retting j)rocess is quicker when the stalks are not 
altogether dry, but, by thoroughly drying, many inconveuiences are 
avoided. 

Before steeping all the several lengths of stalks are bunched 
together by sorting. In wet weather never allow the sheaves to lie on 
the field, otherwise a l>lack, unsound fiber will be produced. 

The stalks, being perfectly dry, are carried to a shaded locality on the 
farm and laid on an inclined bench with all the root ends together. 
They are then evened up with a broad-faced mallet, so as to make an 
even vertical surface. When the bench is sufficiently full a very heavy 
beam of wood is placed across to maintain pressure; then the opera- 
tion of sorting commences. The farthest i)rojecting stems are drawn 
out by taking hold of the tops and pulling horizontally. A large 
handful of these, being then held perpendicular, root end down, rest- 
ing on the ground, are tied up about 1 foot from the root end and 2 feet 
from the tops with a thin green hemp stalk, a bundle of which is near 
at hand for that purpose. This operation is carried on until the bench 
is dra,wn. Thus the long, thick, medium, and short fiber becomes 
sorted, besides separating the rejected. For this operation all leaves, 
branches, and any weeds must be stripped off". 

The bundles of stalks are made up of twelve to fourteen sheaves, one 
over the other, the roots and tops placed end to end, the latter project- 
ing, so that when tied up with green hemi) stalks, as before, they form 



25 

a somewhat cylindrical bundle. After the bundles are made up the 
projecting- tops are cut oiT square to the root ends. If the bundles 
were not made up in this manner they wonld be difficult to cart and 
would give less uniformity during the steeping i)rocess. Stalks so 
bundled can be stored year after year in dry warehouses without fear 
of damage. 

Twelve sheaves, that is, one bundle, of good hemj) will yield 4i pounds 
of liber, though this depends on length and quality. 

CATMNG FOR SEED. 

About a month after cutting for fiber the female plants that were left 
to ripen will be ready. They are cut carefully, so as not to lose the seed, 
dried in the sun, well seasoned, the seed sifted, sacked, and kept dry. 

The female stalks, owing to the advanced season, are very often dried, 
to be kept until the following year, (lood seed is plump and glossy 
and feels damj); it is white in color, with small black markings. When 
the inside is black it has been damaged by fermentation; if dusty, it is 
old and too dry, and therefore not serviceable. A good quality of seed 
when rubbed between the hands becomes glossy; if dropped on red-hot 
iron it cracks and bursts. 

llETTINCi THE STALKS. 

The structure of the bark of the stems shows that retting or steep- 
ing is absolutely necessary. Each stalk is composed of a woody tubu- 
lar structure, around which clings a network of longitudinal filaments, 
bound together by a substance insoluble in water. By steeping a sort 
of decomposition is induced, through which the intercelluhir matter is 
rendered soluble. Thenard and Orfila found by exi3eriraents that the 
bark is composed of A'egetable fiber, resin, green coloring matter, and 
glutinous sap, by which substances it sticks to the stalk. In the opera- 
tion of retting the last two become putrified. 

Fermentation damages the fiber, but the fiber resists the action longer 
than the binding ligaments, consequently the retting process consists 
in allowing the hemp to decomi)ose these substances without injury to 
the filament. The fiber, according to Girardin, is under the epidermis 
and bound to the woody cylindrical stalk by means of a resinous gum, 
so that it can not be extracted unless separated by fermentation, which 
action rots the binding ligaments. 

Hemp must be steeped in stagnant water, about 10° C, which has been 
standing in the steeping pools at least a month to purify and become 
aerated, so that it will not injure the fiber. The steeping or retting 
process is more or less rapid, according to the temperature of the water 
as affected by the sun, according to the nature of the water, the kind 
of weather, and the quality of the hemp itself. 

In hot weather, when possible, after the first steeping it is best to 
draw or run oft" about a foot of water and replenish with fresh. 



26 

Tliere are two forms of rettinji' or steepiii^y' pits, one fitted with stakes 
(tig. 4), the other with rows of stones (tig. 5). In each of these pits 
two rettiugs are effected iu succession by sinking the bundles of stalks 
four layers deep in the stake steeping pools. The first steeping takes 
about eight days, the second a little longer: but, during the second 
steeping, if the water gives signs of "ebullition" the hemp must be 
taken out immediately. 










Fig. 4. — Stake retting pool. 










MnsgJ*P-tt^^s^:*llfe 



-StiiiK^ ri'ttinsi iiool. 



If the fiber can be removed from the surface of the wood}' portion of 
the stalk by passing it between the finger and tliumb it may be con- 
cluded that the operation is complete; or if, by bending a stalk, the 
woody part starts from the fiber, it is clearly in a condition to be taken 
out of the water. 

Large steeping pits are preferable. The depth should not exceed 
5 feet, to allow the water to be at an approximate uniform temperature 
from surface to bottom. The height of the water above the sunken 
hem]) should never be under 12 inches in any retting pool. 



27 

STAKK ItKTTIW! POOL. 

Fig. 4 is :i stake letting pool, sliowiug hemp bundles under submer- 
sion. The ground arouud these should slope inward, the sides inclined 
to about 4;") degrees, and should be lined with oak planks li inches 
thick. 

At one side of the stake steeping pool make a platform, so that the 
laborer wheu steeping, taking out, and washing will uot have the water 
much above his waist. The bottom should be made level, slightly 
inclined to the drain. There are two rows of square stakes, standing 
up to water level, along the length of the pit, to which horizontal 
wooden spars are nailed, top and bottom. Under the top horizontal 
spars, running from end to end, long wood levers are inserted to sink 
the bundles. 

STONE RETTING POOL. 

It is best to build the stone steeping i)ools with brick walls. The 
bundles in this kind of steeping pit are sunk by tying them together 
and loading with stones taken from the I'ows. These pools should not 
be more than 3 feet deep; this system is handy when there is little or 
no means of drainage. When the steeping is finished, the pools are 
left to dry up or are pumped out and the stones placed again in rows 
distant from eacli other the length of the bundles. In a stone steeping 
pit one man arranges the bundles in layers, holding them together by 
means of a rope, while a second man holds the rope <it the other end 
and walks backward to the opposite side of tlie pit as the bundles are 
put in, and until the range of bundles is complete. This range is then 
tied up and sunk by heaping on stones taken from the b(^ttom of the 
pool. 

DHVINc; THE STAI.KS. 

After five or six days' steeping, take a sheaf from the pit, wash it, 
open it out, and stand it on the grass, roots down, in conical-tent shape, 
to dry in the sun. If, when dry, the color and strength are satisfac- 
tory, all the other bundles should be taken out the following morning. 
A night longer in the pit does no harm, owing to the low atmospheric 
temperature. The range of bundles is untied, the bundles opened, and 
each sheaf carefully washed, thrown out, and set up, root end down, in 
large x»yramidal sheaves, to drip for about twelve hours, in which con- 
dition the tiber gains in color and loses a great deal in weight, in case 
it has to be carted anywhere for drying. 

The sheaves are then opened out, in the form of conical tents, to dry. 

Should it rain during the drying period, the fiber loses part of its 
gloss and contracts a roughness, which is perceived by the touch. 

Always open out to dry on closely cropped gTass land, to avoid splash- 
ing with mud. When dry, tie the hemp again in bunches and stove, 
remembering that if not perfectly dry the fiber will rot. 



28 

SCUTCHINa AND CRUSHING. 

The next operation is scutching and crushing". To reduce the fiber 
to a marketable condition the most simple, strong;, and economical 
machinery is required. The compound scutcher and crusher is most 
commonly employed. The hemp is scutched by gradually pushing- 
sheaves under the scutching blades, roots foremost, and then through 
the crusher, which has a pair of tinted cast-iron rollers, one above the 
other, working- closely together. The sheaves are fed in without the 
application of any traveling- apron or feed arrangement. The top 
roller is heavily weighted, so between it and the bottom one the crush- 
ing is accomplished. The first operation roughly breaks the sticks, 
thus disintegrating them from the fiber. 

When scutched all its length, the man feeding the scutcher hands 
the " streak " to a man on his right, who breaks up the thin sticks at the 
tops, shakes the fibers well in order to allow the broken fragments to 
drop, gives the streak a twist about the middle and lays it in a heap, 
while a man on the scutciher's left hands him another sheaf to run 
through. Two gangs are generally emi)loyed, one scutching, the other 
crushing, shaking, and tossing the streaks coming from the crusher, to 
get out all the woody matter possible. 

After scutching and crushing- the hand beater is very often employed 
to improve the quality of fiber by further separating- its tissues; it 
gets spread more equally, and becomes softer and more brilliant. 

FINISHING TOUCHES. 

Scutching, crushing, and beating- over, the most intelligent men on 
the farm are chosen to give to the fiber the finishing touch. 

The streaks are taken one by one, the black fibers drawn out, along 
with any thick root ends, and all nicely matched by sorting and putting- 
together all hemp of the same length. On a clear night these streaks are 
taken from the store and spread on the grass to absorb a little dew, which 
is very beneficial, though care must be taken never to drench it, other- 
wise the fiber will rot. Each streak is then folded in two and twisted 
at the middle to avoid mixing- and becoming ruffled. They are then 
put carefully on a low platform of planks, layer upon layer, so as to 
make u]) the so-called •' i^arcel." 

If hemp has to be stored any length of time, it is advisable to bale 
it, avoiding thus any serious damage in case of fire. The bales weigh 
from 300 to 400 pounds. 

Fig. 6 represents a Bologna farm of 11 hectares, 2 of which we must 
suppose are taken up by buildings, farmyard, steeping pit, roads, and 
walks. Each field is 125 meters long by 40 wide (one-half hectare, or 
about an acre and a fourth). SS and SS are the roads, and Z the 
steeping pit. 



29 

C, B, aud A are the three ranges of tielcls, Hrst, second and tliird. 
Suppose the range C is on hemp cultivation, range 1> on lucern grass, 
and range A on wheat. The first field or bed of range C at the corner 
Z will be No. 1, the next No. 2, and the last No. G, all on hemp cultiva- 
tion. The first bed of range B will be No. 7, the last No. 12, all grow- 
ing lucern, including the two beds Nos. 9 and 10, portions of which 
are built upon. No. 13 will be the first bed of the A range, the last No. 
18, all growing wheat. 

Where there are rows of trees, neither hemp nor lucern is sown within 
12 feet of them, including the drains. Potatoes aud turnips are grown 
under the elms. 

If this plant suffers a hailstorm in its infancy, no matter how light, 
it is advisable to hoe ui) and sow again. If visited by a disaster of 




Fiij. ti. — Bologua liemp farm. 

this kind in June or July, cut and steep immediately. By allowing it 
to grow, more will bti lost than gained, both in ([uality and quantity. 
The surface of hemp beds becomes crusty if heavy rains follow sowing, 
consequently the seed sprouts with difticulty. After sprouting, the 
same heavy showers will damage it most fearfully by splashing; the 
mud will stick to the leaves and stalks and choke them. Heavy winds 
beat the stems together and bruise the epidermis, leaving a very visible 
mark on the fiber. Sometimes a crop is partly destroyed. If the plant 
does not get enough rain early in June, it will not yield much fiber. 
Hemp has eneruies, also, among the insects ; some devour the leaves, the 
rhordon cannabis destroys its seed, and, above all, the I>oti/s .Hilaeeaiis, 
which eats through the stalks, nourishing itself upon the marrow 
therein. 



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